Advanced English (2) • NOUNS • 'C'

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captivity
noun [U ] C1 • synonyms: imprisonment, confinement, bondage • held in captivity; live/die in captivity; escape captivity; captivity of hostages/animals/mind; born in captivity • freq in AmE: 6/10
Captivity can cause psychological trauma. | 2. The hostages were held in captivity for months.
sākt mācīties
niewola, uwięzienie, przetrzymywanie (np. ludzi, zwierząt)
the condition of being confined, imprisoned, or held against one’s will; often used for people, animals, or symbolic states of restriction
Niewola może powodować traumę psychiczną. | 2. Zakładnicy byli przetrzymywani w niewoli przez wiele miesięcy.
carnivore
noun [C ] C2 • synonyms: predator, meat-eater • obligate/facultative carnivore; corporate carnivore; apex carnivore • freq in AmE: 6/10
Lions, wolves, and eagles are classic examples of carnivores. | 2. The startup world can be a carnivore’s playground—only the strongest survive.
sākt mācīties
mięsożerca
an animal that feeds primarily or exclusively on the flesh of other animals; also used metaphorically for people or systems that are aggressively competitive or predatory
Lwy, wilki i orły to klasyczne przykłady mięsożerców. | 2. Świat startupów to raj dla mięsożerców — przetrwają tylko najsilniejsi.
censorship
noun [U ] C1 • synonyms: suppression, control, restriction • media/art/self-censorship; strict/state/imposed censorship • freq in AmE: 7/10
Censorship of the press intensified during the conflict. | 2. Self-censorship can be just as damaging as external control.
sākt mācīties
cenzura
the suppression or control of speech, writing, or other forms of expression that are considered objectionable, harmful, or inconvenient by authorities or institutions
Cenzura prasy nasiliła się podczas konfliktu. | 2. Autocenzura może być równie szkodliwa jak zewnętrzna kontrola.
close-up
noun [C ] C1 (film/photography) • synonyms: zoom-in, tight shot, detailed shot, magnified view • a close-up of someone/something; in close-up; take/show/use a close-up • freq in AmE: 9/10
The director used a close-up to capture the actor’s emotions. | 2. The movie’s dramatic close-ups made the scene unforgettable.
sākt mācīties
zbliżenie (filmowe lub fotograficzne); ujęcie z bliska
a photograph or part of a film in which the camera shows a person or object very near to the viewer, revealing fine details or expressions
Reżyser użył zbliżenia, aby uchwycić emocje aktora. | 2. Dramatyczne zbliżenia w filmie uczyniły tę scenę niezapomnianą.
cobblestone / cobble
noun [C usually plural ] C1 • cobble = kamień; cobblestone = brukowiec • cobblestone street/path; loose cobble; river cobble • freq in AmE: cobble 4/10, cobblestone 5/10
She tripped on a loose cobble near the fountain.
sākt mācīties
kamień brukowy, brukowiec, bruk
a naturally rounded stone used for paving streets, paths, or courtyards; “cobble” is the more general term, while “cobblestone” often refers to the finished paving material or the aesthetic/historic context
Potknęła się o luźny kamień brukowy przy fontannie.
commiseration
noun [U ] C2 formal • synonyms: sympathy, condolence, compassion • offer/send/accept commiserations; heartfelt/deepest commiseration • freq in AmE: 3/10
She sent her commiserations after hearing about his loss. | 2. Messages of commiseration flooded in from friends and colleagues.
sākt mācīties
współczucie, wyrazy współczucia
sympathy and sorrow for the misfortunes of others; an expression of pity or compassion
Przesłała mu wyrazy współczucia po tym, jak dowiedziała się o jego stracie. | 2. Zalew wiadomości pełnych współczucia od przyjaciół i współpracowników.
con artist
noun [C ] C1 (also con man, con woman); (UK also confidence trickster) • synonyms: swindler, trickster, scammer • charming/ruthless con artist; pose as/expose/outsmart con artist • freq in AmE: 7/10
Some influencers are emotional con artists, selling curated illusions of perfection.
sākt mācīties
oszust, kanciarz, naciągacz
a person who deceives others by gaining their trust and then cheating them, often through clever manipulation or charm; metaphorically, someone who fabricates or performs with persuasive dishonesty
Niektórzy influencerzy to emocjonalni oszuści, sprzedający iluzję perfekcji.
confinement
noun [U ] C2 • synonyms: imprisonment, isolation, restriction • solitary confinement; emotional/social confinement; break free from confinement • freq in AmE: 6/10
The artist broke free from the confinement of traditional forms. | 2. The pandemic led to a prolonged period of confinement for many families. | 3. She felt a deep sense of confinement in her rigid daily routine.
sākt mācīties
izolacja, uwięzienie, zamknięcie
the state of being restricted or kept within limits, especially being kept in a place like prison, a room, or within boundaries; metaphorically, a sense of emotional, social, or psychological limitation
Artysta uwolnił się z ograniczeń tradycyjnych form. | 2. Pandemia doprowadziła do długiego okresu zamknięcia dla wielu rodzin. | 3. Czuła głębokie poczucie ograniczenia w swojej sztywnej codziennej rutynie.
conversion
noun [C or U ] C2 • synonyms: spiritual shift, religious change, awakening • conversion to something (Christianity/Islam/Buddhism); undergo a conversion; religious/spiritual/personal conversion • freq in AmE: 5/10
His conversion to Buddhism was deeply personal.
sākt mācīties
nawrócenie, przejście na inną wiarę, duchowa przemiana
the act or process of adopting a new religion or spiritual belief, often involving a personal transformation, commitment, or formal ritual
Jego nawrócenie na buddyzm było głęboko osobiste.
conviction
noun [C or U ] C1 ethical/philosophical • synonyms: belief, certainty, principle • conviction about something; speak/act with conviction; deep/personal/moral conviction; conviction-driven decisions • freq in AmE: 7/10
His actions were guided by deep personal conviction. | 2. Conviction gives strength to stand firm in the face of opposition.
sākt mācīties
przekonanie, głęboka wiara, wewnętrzna pewność
a firmly held belief or opinion, often rooted in moral, philosophical, or personal values; a sense of certainty or inner assurance about what is right, true, or important
Jego działania wynikały z głębokiej osobistej wiary. | 2. Przekonanie daje siłę, by trwać mimo sprzeciwu.
personal conviction
collocation with conviction noun [C, U ] C1 ethical/philosophical • synonyms: belief, principle, stance • personal conviction about something; act/speak/stand from personal conviction; strong/deep/unshaken personal conviction • freq in AmE: 6/10
Personal conviction can be a powerful force in shaping one’s choices.
sākt mācīties
osobiste przekonanie, głęboka wiara, wewnętrzna zasada
a deeply held belief or principle that guides an individual’s thoughts, decisions, or actions — often rooted in moral, ethical, religious, or philosophical values
Osobiste przekonania mogą silnie wpływać na życiowe wybory.
conviction
noun [C ] C1 legal/criminal • synonyms: sentence, judgment, finding of guilt • criminal/prior/felony conviction; conviction for theft/fraud; overturn a conviction; conviction record/history • freq in AmE: 7/10
A criminal conviction can affect employment opportunities. | 2. The conviction was overturned due to new evidence.
sākt mācīties
skazanie, wyrok skazujący, uznanie za winnego
a formal declaration by a court that someone is guilty of a criminal offense; the outcome of a legal process resulting in a finding of guilt
Wyrok skazujący może wpłynąć na możliwości zatrudnienia. | 2. Skazanie zostało uchylone z powodu nowych dowodów.
corpse
noun [C ] C2 formal • synonyms: body, remains, carcass • find/examine a corpse; the corpse of someone; buried/decaying corpse; human corpse • freq in AmE: 5/10
Forensic experts examined the corpse to determine the cause of death.
sākt mācīties
ciało (zmarłego), zwłoki, trup
a dead body, especially of a human being
Biegli sądowi zbadali ciało, aby ustalić przyczynę śmierci.
craving (for something)
noun [C ] C2 psychology / everyday language • synonyms: desire, longing, urge • have a craving for something; satisfy/resist a craving; strong/sudden craving; food/sugar/nicotine craving • freq in AmE: 7/10
She had a sudden craving for chocolate. | 2. Pregnant women often experience strange cravings. | 3. After quitting smoking, he struggled with constant nicotine cravings.
sākt mācīties
silne pragnienie, zachcianka (na coś), głód (czegoś)
a very strong desire for something, especially food or a specific experience
Miała nagłą ochotę na czekoladę. | 2. Kobiety w ciąży często mają dziwne zachcianki. | 3. Po rzuceniu palenia zmagał się z ciągłym głodem nikotynowym.
have a craving for something
collocation with craving noun [C ] C2 informal / psychology • synonyms: long for, desire, want badly • have a craving for food/sweets/adventure/attention; suddenly/really have a craving for something • freq in AmE: 7/10
He had a craving for attention after years of being ignored. | 2. Many people have a craving for something sweet after dinner.
sākt mācīties
mieć ochotę na coś, odczuwać silne pragnienie czegoś, mieć zachciankę na coś
to feel a very strong desire or longing for something, especially food or a specific experience
Miał ogromną potrzebę uwagi po latach bycia ignorowanym. | 2. Wiele osób po obiedzie ma ochotę na coś słodkiego.
culprit
noun [C ] C2 literal/metaphorical • synonyms: wrongdoer, cause, offender • the real culprit; main culprit; digital culprit; culprit behind sth • freq in AmE: 7/10
The police finally caught the culprit behind the string of burglaries. | 2. Plastic packaging is often the main culprit in ocean pollution. | 3. When the server crashed, a faulty update turned out to be the culprit.
sākt mācīties
sprawca, winowajca, przyczyna (czegoś negatywnego)
a person or thing responsible for a fault, crime, or problem; used both in legal contexts and informal speech to identify the cause of something negative
Policja w końcu złapała sprawcę serii włamań. | 2. Plastikowe opakowania to często główny winowajca zanieczyszczenia oceanów. | 3. Gdy serwer padł, winowajcą okazała się wadliwa aktualizacja.
clout
noun [U ] C1 • synonyms: influence, sway, leverage • have/wield/lose clout; political/social/media clout; clout in/with/over • freq in AmE: 7/10
The union used its clout to negotiate better wages. | 2. Social media influencers now wield more clout than traditional celebrities.
sākt mācīties
siła oddziaływania, wpływ, autorytet
influence or power, especially in political, social, or professional contexts; the ability to shape decisions, opinions, or outcomes due to status, reputation, or authority
Związek zawodowy wykorzystał swoją siłę oddziaływania, by wynegocjować lepsze warunki. | 2. Influencerzy mają dziś większe znaczenie niż tradycyjne gwiazdy.
comorbidity
noun [C or U ] C2 • medical/clinical • synonyms: co-occurring condition, concurrent illness • comorbidity with X; suffer from multiple comorbidities; comorbidity burden/rate • freq in AmE: 5/10
Depression is a common comorbidity in patients with chronic pain. | 2. Obesity often presents with multiple comorbidities, including hypertension and sleep apnea.
sākt mācīties
choroba współistniejąca
the simultaneous presence of two or more medical conditions or diseases in a patient, especially when they interact or complicate treatment
Depresja jest częstą chorobą współistniejącą u osób z przewlekłym bólem. | 2. Otyłość często wiąże się z wieloma chorobami współistniejącymi, np. nadciśnieniem i bezdechem sennym.
Crimea
proper noun C1 • region • synonyms: Crimean Peninsula, disputed territory, strategic region • Crimea in history/geopolitics; annexation of Crimea; Crimea as part of Ukraine/Russia; Crimean culture/conflict • freq in AmE: 7/10
The conflict over Crimea remains unresolved. | 2. Crimea was annexed by Russia in 2014.
sākt mācīties
Krym — półwysep o znaczeniu strategicznym i historycznym
a peninsula in Eastern Europe located on the northern coast of the Black Sea; historically contested territory with complex political status, known for its strategic location, cultural diversity, and turbulent history
Konflikt o Krym pozostaje nierozwiązany. | 2. Krym został zaanektowany przez Rosję w 2014 roku.
counseling
noun [U ] C2 US (also mainly UK counselling) • synonyms: therapy, guidance, support • a counseling service; grief/career/marriage counseling; seek/offer/receive counseling • freq in AmE: 8/10
She decided to seek counseling after the breakup. | 2. The school offers free career counseling to students.
sākt mācīties
doradztwo, poradnictwo, terapia
professional guidance or support offered to individuals or groups to help them deal with emotional, psychological, relational, or situational challenges
Zdecydowała się na terapię po rozstaniu. | 2. Szkoła oferuje bezpłatne doradztwo zawodowe dla uczniów.
confined space
noun [C ] C1 • synonyms: enclosed area, tight space, restricted zone • work in/escape from a confined space; confined spaces in rescue/engineering/psychology; confined space hazards • freq in AmE: 5/10
Rescuers had to work in a confined space beneath the rubble.
sākt mācīties
ograniczona przestrzeń, ciasne pomieszczenie, zamknięta przestrzeń
a space that is small, enclosed, and difficult to move in; often refers to areas with limited access, ventilation, or mobility — sometimes hazardous in industrial or emergency contexts
Ratownicy musieli działać w ograniczonej przestrzeni pod gruzami.
croak
noun [C ] C2 • synonyms: rasp, grunt, death rattle • frog’s croak; hoarse croak; final croak; croak in the dark • freq in AmE: 5/10
We heard the croak of frogs by the pond. | 2. His voice came out as a croak after the flu. | 3. The old man let out a final croak and fell silent.
sākt mācīties
rechot (żaby), chrypka, ostatni jęk (potocznie / metaforycznie)
a deep, rough sound made by a frog or a person with a hoarse voice; also used metaphorically to describe a death rattle or final utterance
Usłyszeliśmy rechot żab przy stawie. | 2. Po grypie mówił tylko chrypką. | 3. Starzec wydał ostatni jęk i zamilkł.
cougar
noun [C ] C2 mainly US (UK usually puma) • synonyms: puma, mountain lion, panther • wild/agile/solitary cougar; cougar habitat/tracks/leap • freq in AmE: 7/10
The cougar is one of the most elusive predators in North America. | 2. Cougars can leap up to 6 meters in a single bound.
sākt mācīties
puma, kuguar
a large, solitary wild cat native to the Americas, also known as a mountain lion, puma, or panther — known for its agility, stealth, and adaptability across diverse habitats from forests to deserts
Puma to jeden z najbardziej skrytych drapieżników Ameryki Północnej. | 2. Kuguary potrafią skakać na odległość nawet 6 metrów.
crucifixion
noun [C or U ] C1 religious/historical • synonyms: execution, torment, martyrdom (fig.) • the Crucifixion; crucifixion of Christ/rebels; metaphorical crucifixion • freq in AmE: 5/10
The crucifixion of Christ is central to Christian theology.
sākt mācīties
ukrzyżowanie
the act of executing someone by nailing or binding them to a cross, especially referring to the death of Jesus Christ; also used metaphorically to describe extreme suffering or public humiliation
Ukrzyżowanie Chrystusa jest centralnym wydarzeniem w teologii chrześcijańskiej.
combat
noun [C or U ] C2 • synonyms: battle, fight, struggle, warfare, confrontation, resistance • in/into combat; close/unarmed/armed combat; hand-to-hand combat; combat against/with something • freq in AmE: 8/10
Thousands of soldiers died in combat during the war. | 2. He was trained for close combat. | 3. The new policies are part of the combat against corruption.
sākt mācīties
walka, bój; zmaganie (z czymś)
fighting between armed forces; more generally, any struggle or effort to stop or deal with something difficult or harmful
Tysiące żołnierzy zginęło w walce podczas wojny. | 2. Był szkolony do walki wręcz. | 3. Nowe przepisy są częścią walki z korupcją.
serve in combat
collocation with combat noun [C or U ] C2 • synonyms: fight in war, engage in combat, be deployed in battle • serve in combat zones/missions; combat veteran; combat experience • freq in AmE: 5/10
Many veterans who served in combat suffer from PTSD.
sākt mācīties
służyć w warunkach bojowych, brać udział w działaniach zbrojnych
to participate actively in military operations or warfare, typically involving direct exposure to hostile action
Wielu weteranów, którzy brali udział w walkach, cierpi na PTSD.
commendation
noun [C or U ] C1 formal • synonyms: praise, recognition, tribute • receive/earn/award a commendation; commendation for bravery/service/excellence • freq in AmE: 5/10
She received a commendation for her bravery.
sākt mācīties
pochwała, wyróżnienie, uznanie (oficjalne)
formal praise or recognition for an achievement, act of service, or notable conduct; often given in official or ceremonial contexts
Otrzymała wyróżnienie za odwagę.
chatter
noun [U ] C1 • synonyms: talk, babble, buzz • lively/background chatter; online/social chatter; chatter of voices/birds/machines • freq in AmE: 6/10
I couldn’t concentrate because of the constant chatter. | 2. There was a lot of online chatter about the new movie. | 3. The chatter of birds filled the morning air.
sākt mācīties
paplanina, gadanie; ćwierkanie, świergotanie (np. cykliczne odgłosy wydawane przez niektóre zwierzęta)
continuous, often trivial or rapid talk; also refers to background noise of voices or mechanical sounds; the quick, repeated noises that some animals make
Nie mogłem się skupić przez ciągłe gadanie. | 2. W sieci krążyło mnóstwo plotek o nowym filmie. | 3. Poranne powietrze wypełniało ćwierkanie ptaków.
conundrum
noun [C ] C1 • synonyms: dilemma, paradox, puzzle • ethical/personal/conceptual conundrum; face a conundrum; solve/navigate a conundrum • freq in AmE: 5/10
The ethical conundrum of AI in warfare remains unresolved. | 2. She faced a personal conundrum: follow her passion or choose financial stability. | 3. The team debated the conundrum of balancing innovation with user safety.
sākt mācīties
zawiły problem, zagwozdka, dylemat
a confusing and difficult problem or question, often with no clear solution; a paradox or dilemma that challenges reasoning or decision-making
Etyczny dylemat związany z użyciem AI w wojsku pozostaje nierozwiązany. | 2. Stanęła przed osobistą zagwozdką: podążać za pasją czy wybrać finansową stabilność. | 3. Zespół debatował nad paradoksem równoważenia innowacji z bezpieczeństwem użytkownika.
coup
noun [C ] C1 formal • synonyms: coup d’état, overthrow, power grab • stage/lead/condemn a coup; military/political coup; failed/successful coup; coup and unrest/turmoil/regime change • freq in AmE: 6/10
The military staged a coup and took control of the capital.
sākt mācīties
zamach stanu, przewrót polityczny
a sudden, often violent, and illegal seizure of power from a government, typically carried out by a small group such as the military or political faction
Wojsko przeprowadziło zamach stanu i przejęło władzę w stolicy.
citizenry
noun [U ] C1 formal • synonyms: populace, body of citizens, civic community • the citizenry of X; informed/responsible/active citizenry; serve/address/educate the citizenry; citizenry and democracy/governance • freq in AmE: 5/10
A well-informed citizenry is vital to a functioning democracy.
sākt mācīties
obywatele, społeczeństwo obywatelskie, ogół obywateli
the collective body of citizens in a state, nation, or community; used to refer to the people as a whole, especially in discussions of civic responsibility, rights, or governance
Dobrze poinformowane społeczeństwo obywatelskie to fundament demokracji.
consensus
noun [S or U ] C2 • general consensus; reach a consensus; consensus on something
The general consensus in the office is that he can't do his job. | 2. Could we reach a consensus on this matter? Let's take a vote. | 3. There is a growing consensus on the need for the country to reduce its reliance on imported oil.
sākt mācīties
zgoda, konsensus, jednomyślność
a generally accepted opinion or decision among a group of people
W biurze panuje powszechne przekonanie, że nie jest on w stanie wykonywać swojej pracy. | 2. Czy możemy zgodzić się w tej sprawie? Głosujmy. | 3. Coraz powszechniejsza jest opinia, że ​​kraj powinien ograniczyć zależność od importowanej ropy naftowej.
general consensus
collocation with consensus noun [S or U ] C2 • general consensus; reach a consensus; consensus on something
The general consensus in the office is that he can't do his job. | 2. There is a general consensus that while exercise might not help you lose weight, it will make you healthier overall.
sākt mācīties
powszechna zgoda, jednomyślność
a generally accepted opinion or decision among a group of people
W biurze panuje powszechne przekonanie, że nie jest on w stanie wykonywać swojej pracy. | 2. Powszechnie uważa się, że chociaż ćwiczenia fizyczne niekoniecznie pomagają schudnąć, ogólnie poprawiają zdrowie.

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